Debris flow processes on lateral moraines of mountain glaciers (analytical review)

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Abstract

As a result of climate change there have been high rates of degradation of mountain glaciers in recent years. During deglaciation in the territories previously occupied by glaciers, moraines of various morphogenetic types remain deposited by them, connected with massifs of glacial-colluvial and other deposits. The most actively involved in debris flow processes are massifs of terminal moraines with extended steep ledges, on which debris flow cuts and furrows develop.

Much less often, debris flow original sites are formed on lateral moraines, but debris flows can reach catastrophic proportions. The analysis of publications and of multi-time satellite images revealed data on the formation of debris flow original sites of various types in the areas of lateral moraines of mountain glaciers, pockets of lateral moraines filled with slope and glacial deposits, as well as lakes and streams inside them. Similar debris flow original sites have been characterized for the Central Caucasus, the Andes, the Hindu Kush, the Himalayas and Tibet. The largest debris flow disasters with original sites in areas of lateral moraines were outbursts of Palcacocha lakes in Peru in 1941 and Chorabari in India in 2013 with a death toll of up to 6054, as well as the outburst of South Lhonak Lake in Sikkim (India) in 2023. In areas of lateral moraines of valley glaciers connected with moraine pedestals of former tributary glaciers, the volume of mass transport of debris flows can reach 6.5 million m3 (lateral moraine of the Gangotri glacier in the Himalayas in 2017). The progress of debris flow processes on lateral moraines of mountain glaciers must be taken into account when developing mountain territories both in areas near lateral moraines and at a considerable distance from them.

About the authors

M. Yu. Bekkiev

High-Mountain Geophysical Institute

Email: inrush@bk.ru
Russian Federation, Nalchik

M. D. Dokukin

High-Mountain Geophysical Institute

Author for correspondence.
Email: inrush@bk.ru
Russian Federation, Nalchik

M. Ch. Zalikhanov

High-Mountain Geophysical Institute

Email: inrush@bk.ru
Russian Federation, Nalchik

R. Kh. Kalov

High-Mountain Geophysical Institute

Email: inrush@bk.ru
Russian Federation, Nalchik

L. M. Fedchenko

High-Mountain Geophysical Institute

Email: inrush@bk.ru
Russian Federation, Nalchik

A. R. Akaev

High-Mountain Geophysical Institute

Email: inrush@bk.ru
Russian Federation, Nalchik

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Supplementary files

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2. Fig. 1. A section of the pocket of the right lateral moraine of the Chorabari glacier before and after the Chorabari Lake outburst on satellite images: (a) –26.09.2010 Landsat 4-5 TM, (б) – 09.11.2011 WorldView-2, (в) – 14.12.2013 Pleiades-1A. The yellow line is the ridge of the lateral moraine

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3. Fig. 2. The section of the pocket of the left lateral moraine of the Dykh-Kotyu-Bugaysu glacier (Dykh-Su) before and after the debris flow on July 5, 2017 on satellite images: (a) – 19.09.2011 GeoEye-1, (б) – 06.10.2017 GeoEye-1, on a helicopter photo by M.D. Dokukin: (в) – 19.09.2023. 1 – ridges of lateral moraines; 2 – lake-like area; 3 – debris flow cut; 4 – debris flow deposits

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4. Fig. 3. Jinwuco Lake in the valley of the Nidоu Zangbo River in Lhari County (Tibet, China) before and after the outburst in 2020 on Bing Maps and Google Earth satellite images: (a) – 24.12.2017 Pleiades-1A, (б, г) – 17.10.2021 WorldView-2, (в) – 29.11.2016 Pleiades-1A

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5. Fig. 4. South Lhonak Lake in the Teesta River valley (Sikkim, India) before and after the outburst in 10.04.2023 on Sentinel-2 satellite images: (а) – 26.09.2023, (б) – 06.10.2023. 1 – the boundary of the lake on 26.09.2023; 2 – the boundary of the lake on 06.10.2023; 3 – the water flow flowing in and out of the lake; 4 – the boundaries of the landslide zone; 5 – the crest of the lateral moraine, 6 – the ridge of the median moraine

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6. Fig. 5. The section of the left lateral moraine of the Gangotri glacier and the moraine pedestal of the Meru Bamak glacier in the upper reaches of the Bhagirathi River (Himalayas, India) before and after the debris flow in the period from July 16 to 19, 2017 on Google Earth satellite images: (a) –26.08.2014 Pleiades-1A, (б) – 07.10.2017 Pleiades-1A. 1 – ridge of the left lateral moraine of the Gangotri glacier; 2 – ridges of the lateral moraines of the moraine pedestal of the Meru Bamak glacier; 3 – debris flow cut; 4 – debris flow deposits

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7. Fig. 6. A section of the moraine complex of the former left tributary of the Batswat glacier in the valley of the left tributary of the Ishkoman River (Pakistan) with a terraced moraine pedestal before and after the formation of the cut in July-August 2018 on Google Earth and Bing Maps satellite images: (a) – 10.07.2017 Pleiades-1A, (б) – 26.05.2020 WorldView-2. 1 – terraced moraine pedestal; 2 – terraced rock glacier; 3 – debris flow cut

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8. Fig. 7. The site of the debris flow original site on the right lateral moraine of the Mizhirgi glacier before and after the debris flow on 13.08.2022 (photo from the quadcopter): (a) – 26.07.2022, (б) – 28.08.2022

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9. Fig. 8. A section of the lateral moraine of the Mizhirgi glacier: (a) – Google Earth satellite image 28.10.2019 Pleiades-1A, (б) – photo from the quadcopter 26.07.2022, (в) – photo from the quadcopter 28.08.2022. The red line is the ridge of the lateral moraine of the XXI century, the yellow line is the ridge of the lateral moraine of the little Ice Age, the blue line is the watercourse bed in the pocket of the lateral moraine, the red arrows indicate the location of the fracture of the displacement of the ridge of the lateral moraine

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